Hinduism

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Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions. It has complex roots, and involves a vast array of practices and a host of deities. Its plethora of forms and beliefs reflects the tremendous diversity of India, where most of its one billion followers reside. Hinduism is more than a religion. It is a culture, a way of life, and a code of behavior. This is reflected in a term Indians use to describe the Hindu religion: Sanatana Dharma, which means eternal faith, or the eternal way things are (truth).

The word Hinduism derives from a Persian term denoting the inhabitants of the land beyond the Indus, a river in present-day Pakistan. By the early nineteenth century the term had entered popular English usage to describe the predominant religious traditions of South Asia, and it is now used by Hindus themselves. Hindu beliefs and practices are enormously diverse, varying over time and among individuals, communities, and regional areas.

Unlike Buddhism, Jainism, or Sikhism, Hinduism has no historical founder. Its authority rests instead upon a large body of sacred texts that provide Hindus with rules governing rituals, worship, pilgrimage, and daily activities, among many other things. Although the oldest of these texts may date back four thousand years, the earliest surviving Hindu images and temples were created some two thousand years later.

What are the roots of Hinduism?

Hinduism developed over many centuries from a variety of sources: cultural practices, sacred texts, and philosophical movements, as well as local popular beliefs. The combination of these factors is what accounts for the varied and diverse nature of Hindu practices and beliefs. Hinduism developed from several sources:

Prehistoric and Neolithic culture, which left material evidence including abundant rock and cave paintings of bulls and cows, indicating an early interest in the sacred nature of these animals.

The Indus Valley civilization, located in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India, which flourished between approximately 2500 and 1700 B.C.E., and persisted with some regional presence as late as 800 B.C.E. The civilization reached its high point in the cities of Harrapa and Mohenjo-Daro. Although the physical remains of these large urban complexes have not produced a great deal of explicit religious imagery, archaeologists have recovered some intriguing items, including an abundance of seals depicting bulls, among these a few exceptional examples illustrating figures seated in yogic positions; terracotta female figures that suggest fertility; and small anthropomorphic sculptures made of stone and bronze. Material evidence found at these sites also includes prototypes of stone linga (phallic emblems of the Hindu god Shiva). Later textual sources assert that indigenous peoples of this area engaged in linga worship.

According to recent theories, Indus Valley peoples migrated to the Gangetic region of India and blended with indigenous cultures, after the decline of civilization in the Indus Valley. A separate group of Indo-European speaking people migrated to the subcontinent from West Asia. These peoples brought with them ritual life including fire sacrifices presided over by priests, and a set of hymns and poems collectively known as the Vedas.

The indigenous beliefs of the pre-Vedic peoples of the subcontinent of India encompassed a variety of local practices based on agrarian fertility cults and local nature spirits. Vedic writings refer to the worship of images, tutelary divinities, and the phallus.

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Common to virtually all Hindus are certain beliefs, including, but not limited to, the following:

* a belief in many gods, which are seen as manifestations of a single unity. These deities are linked to universal and natural processes. * a preference for one deity while not excluding or disbelieving others * a belief in the universal law of cause and effect (karma) and reincarnation * a belief in the possibility of liberation and release (moksha) by which the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) can be resolved

[[☃ image 1]]Hinduism is bound to the hierarchical structure of the caste system, a categorization of members of society into defined social classes. An individual’s position in the caste system is thought to be a reflection of accumulated merit in past lives (karma).

Observance of the dharma, or behavior consistent with one’s caste and status, is discussed in many early philosophical texts. Not every religious practice can be undertaken by all members of society. Similarly, different activities are considered appropriate for different stages of life, with study and raising families necessary for early stages, and reflection and renunciation goals of later years. A religious life need not be spiritual to the exclusion of worldly pleasures or rewards, such as the pursuit of material success and (legitimate) pleasure, depending on one’s position in life. Hindus believe in the importance of the observation of appropriate behavior, including numerous rituals, and the ultimate goal of moksha, the release or liberation from the endless cycle of birth.

Moksha is the ultimate spiritual goal of Hinduism. How does one pursue moksha? The goal is to reach a point where you detach yourself from the feelings and perceptions that tie you to the world, leading to the realization of the ultimate unity of things—the soul (atman) connected with the universal (Brahman). To get to this point, one can pursue various paths: the way of knowledge, the way of appropriate actions or works, or the way of devotion to God.

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[[☃ image 1]]Religion pervades many aspects of Hindu life, and religious observance is not limited to one location, time of day, or use of a particular text. It assumes many forms: in the home, at the temple, on a pilgrimage, through yogic practices, dance or music, at the roadside, by the river, through the observation of one’s social duties and so on.

Puja

The general term used to describe Hindu worship is puja—the most common forms of worship taking place in the home at the family shrine and at the local temple. Practices vary depending on location, but generally speaking, the worshiper might approach the temple to give thanks, to ask for assistance, to give penance, or to contemplate the divine. Worship is tied to the individual or family group, rather than a service or congregational gathering. Puja occurs on a daily basis, or even several times throughout the day, as well as at specific times and days at local temples, and with abundant festivities on the occasions of great festivals.

In the temple, the devotees are assisted by the priest, who intercedes on their behalf by performing ritual acts, and blessing offerings. Worship often begins by circumambulating the temple. Inside the temple, the priest’s actions are accompanied by the ringing of bells, passing of a flame, and chanting. Traditionally, dance also formed an essential part of temple worship.

Darshan

A key concept in the worship of Hindu deities is the act of making eye contact with the deity (darshan). The activity of making direct visual contact with the god or goddess is a two-sided event; the worshiper sees the divinity, and the divinity likewise sees the devotee. This ritualistic viewing occurs between devotee and God in intimate domestic spaces, as well as in tremendously crowded temple complexes where the individual may be part of a throng of hundreds or thousands of other worshipers. It is believed that by having darshan of the god’s image, one takes the energy that is given by the deity, and receives blessings.

This essential Hindu practice also demonstrates the profound importance of religious imagery to worship and ritual. While in most other religious traditions images are believed to represent or suggest divine or holy personages, or are altogether forbidden, in Hindu practice painted and sculpted images are believed to genuinely embody the divine. Appropriate ritual imbues images with authentic divine presence. Literal physical connection in the form of visual contact is essential to religious devotion, whether on a local and ongoing basis, or in the undertaking of great pilgrimages.

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While there is no one text or creed that forms the basis of all Hindu beliefs, several texts are considered fundamental to all branches of Hinduism. These texts are generally divided into two main groups: eternal, revealed texts, and those based upon what humanity has learned and written down. The Vedas are an example of the former, while the two great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, belong to the latter category. For centuries, texts were transmitted orally, and the priestly caste, or brahmans, was entrusted with memorization and preservation of sacred texts.

The Vedas

The Vedas are India’s earliest surviving texts, dating from approximately 2000 to 1500 B.C.E. These texts are made up of hymns and ritual treatises that are instructional in nature, along with other sections that are more speculative and metaphysical. The Vedas are greatly revered by contemporary Hindus as forming the foundation for their deepest beliefs.

The early Vedas refer often to certain gods such as Indra, the thunder god, and Agni, who carries messages between humans and the gods through fire sacrifices. Some of these gods persist in later Hinduism, while others are diminished or transformed into other deities over time. The Vedas are considered a timeless revelation, and a source of unchanging knowledge that underlies much of present-day Hindu practices.

Mahabharata and Ramayana

These two great epics are the most widely known works in India. Every child becomes familiar with these stories from an early age. The Mahabharata is the world’s longest poem, with approximately 100,000 verses. It tells the story of the conflict between the Pandava brothers and their cousins the Kauravas, a rivalry that culminates in a great battle. On the eve of the battle, the Pandava warrior Arjuna is distressed by what will happen. The god Krishna consoles him in a famous passage known as the Bhagavad-Gita (meaning “the Song of the Lord”). This section of the Mahabharata has become a standard reference in addressing the duty of the individual, the importance of dharma, and humankind’s relationship to God and society.

A second epic, the Ramayana, contains some of India’s best-loved characters, including Rama and Sita, the ideal royal couple, and their helper, the monkey leader, Hanuman. Rama is an incarnation of the God Vishnu. The story tells of Rama and Sita’s withdrawal to the forest after being exiled from the kingdom of Ayodhya. Sita is abducted in the forest by Ravana, the evil king of Lanka. Rama eventually defeats Ravana, with the help of his brother and an army of monkeys and bears. The couple returns to Ayodhya and are crowned, and from that point the story has evolved to acquire different endings. Episodes of the Ramayana are frequently illustrated in Hindu art.

The Puranas

The Puranas are the primary source of stories about the Hindu deities. They were probably assembled between 300 to 1000 C.E., and their presence corresponds to the rise of Hinduism and the growing importance of certain deities. They describe the exploits of the gods as well as various devotional practices associated with them. Some of the Vedic gods—Indra, Agni, Surya—reappear in the Puranas, but figure less importantly in the stories than do Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the various manifestations of the Goddess, and other celestial figures.

Tantras

Around the same time as the recording of the Puranas, a number of texts concerning ritual practices surrounding various deities emerge. They are collectively known as Tantras or Agamas, and refer to religious observances, yoga, behavior, and the proper selection and design of temple sites. Some aspects of the Tantras concern the harnessing of physical energies as a means to achieve spiritual breakthrough. Tantric practices cross religious boundaries, and manifest themselves in aspects of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.

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There are many Hindu deities, some with great and others with limited powers. Most Hindus focus their devotion primarily on one of these, whom they regard as supreme. The greatest deities have complex natures and are shown in art in a variety of forms and situations from narratives. They are sometimes attended by spouses or their particular animal mounts. They are often identified by physical characteristics and symbolic implements they hold or wear.

While there are many gods with myriad forms, those most popularly worshiped by Hindus in India are Vishnu, Shiva, the Goddess in her various aspects, and Shiva’s sons Ganesha and Karttikeya. According to some interpretations, all divinities are in fact a manifestation of a single godhead, divine force, or abstraction.

The Trimurti, or “triple form” explains basic beliefs about the roles of Hindu gods, but is largely a Western interpretation of the main deities that has an obvious basis in the idea of the Christian Trinity. The Hindu Trimurti consists of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer.

Most Hindus are principally devoted to the god Vishnu, the god Shiva, or the Goddess. These categorical practices are sometimes described as, respectively, Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), and Shaktism (Shakti being another term for the female creative energy). The predominance of these three deities evolved over several centuries, crystallizing in the early part of the first millennium, when a renewed Hinduism centering on devotion made them increasingly popular. It is believed that each of these divinities incorporated elements of other or earlier deities that existed in the pre-Hindu context, and that express beliefs and practices existing at high and low levels of culture. Thus, mainstream Hindu deities relate to figures appearing in Vedic literature, as well as to worship practices involving nature spirits, fertility, local tutelary gods, shamanism, malevolent spirits, and ghosts.

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[[☃ image 1]]Who is depicted here?

This is an image of the Hindu god Shiva. The image appears in a complex narrative scene. Shiva is standing in the pose of an archer, having just released a single arrow that is destroying three cities occupied by demons. He is surrounded by weapons and his lower left hand touches his elephant-headed son, Ganesha, who peers out gingerly behind him.

The apparently frenetic, chaotic scene suggests the urgency and drama of the narrative. The complete name of this subject is Shiva the Destroyer of the Three Cities. It refers to the three indestructible cities of earth, air, and sky that a group of demons created after receiving boons from the gods. In Hindu mythology, whenever a boon is granted, a corollary counteracts the boon, to protect the world from unchecked power. In this case, the demons and their cities could be destroyed by a single arrow once in a thousand years, when all three cities were aligned. The scene shows the moment when Shiva draws back his bow and releases his single arrow to destroy the demons and their domain.

How can you recognize Shiva?

Shiva is a powerful deity, and like other powerful Hindu deities, he is depicted with many arms carrying weapons. His two main arms are shooting the bow. In his other hands are the body of a serpent, a trident, a sword, the end of the serpent’s tail, a shield, and a skull club. Shiva’s lower left hand rests on his son, the elephant-headed God, Ganesha. True to his nature, Ganesha is undisturbed by the battle as he enjoys a bowl of sweets. Another figure is bent over and supports Shiva’s bent leg. Yet another figure holds a shield and sword. Shiva is often seen accompanied by armies of attendants.

When not engaged in battle or other mythic struggles, Shiva is an ascetic figure who meditates in the Himalayas. As an ascetic, he smears ashes over his body from the cremation grounds (since he is associated with the cycle of birth, death and rebirth). His hair is unkempt, styled into a crown of matted locks and ornamented with a crescent moon. He usually carries a trident, an hour-glass drum, and an axe. He is also lord of the animals, and is sometimes seen with an antelope or deer. He often has a snake wrapped around his neck. The artist here has chosen to depict those attributes that reflect the image of Shiva in battle.

How would this sculpture have been used?

This sculpture was made of sandstone in central India around 1000 to 1200. Sandstone allows for detailed carving, but also has a soft, malleable appearance as compared to harder stone. The sculpture would have been placed above the viewer on the wall of a temple, and may have been painted in bright colors or otherwise decorated. Worshipers to the temple would have seen this sculpture from below and been reminded of the heroic deeds of Shiva. What effect do you think this would have had on people?

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Who is depicted here?

[[☃ image 1]]Individual Hindu gods manifest themselves in many forms, in some cases including the ferocious and terrifying. Among his many guises, Shiva is an ascetic and mendicant who renounces conventional earthly existence to pursue extreme practices and austerities. This manifestation of Shiva as ascetic is the fearsome Bhairava form, who is accompanied by a dog and shown wearing a garland of severed heads. A common story about Bhairava is that he cut off the fifth head of the unruly god Brahma, and he was thus cursed to wonder the earth with this severed head in his hand. Brahminicide, the killing of a brahman, is a tremendous crime whose penance involves years of mendicant life, living on alms, and carrying a staff and a skull.

Bhairava can also be identified through his fangs and bulging eyes, which indicate his ferocity, his matted ascetic locks which have been sculpted into a headdress, his ascetic’s begging bowl in the form of a skull cup, and the string of heads curving around his lower body. In some versions of the story, Bhairava’s skull cup is formed from the skull of Brahma whose head he severed. The sculpture’s right hand would have held a club surmounted by a human head. Bhairava wears a hissing serpent in the place of a loincloth. This form of the god Shiva, said to be the most terrifying, induces worshipers to confront their own fears. The god’s physical form is sensual and well proportioned in the same manner and precise dimensions of other South Indian figures, including those in stone and in bronze. The dog portrayed with Bhairava, considered his vehicle, may be explained by the association of funerary grounds with the presence of wild dogs. Cremation grounds were frequented by scavenger animals. In some textual accounts, animal and human sacrifices were also offered to the god.

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How was the sculpture used?

The sculpture may have been worshiped in a temple dedicated to Bhairava, or it may have functioned as a significant image in the context of a larger Shiva temple. Due to the transgressive, fierce, and terrific nature of Bhairava, in worship he received conventionally forbidden offerings such as alcohol and meat. The surface of this image is covered with boot black, a substance similar to shoe polish, which British collectors during the Raj often chose to apply to stone sculpture, apparently for aesthetic reasons. The image has been further modified by being rubbed with red-brown dirt, perhaps to enhance sculptural details.

Learn more on the Asian Art Museum's education website.

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Who is depicted here?

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This stone stele depicts the Hindu god Vishnu, attended by two consorts, Lakshmi (lower left) and Sarasvati (lower right ). Vishnu is the god of Preservation, the great maintainer who often appears in various incarnations (avatara) to provide salvation for humanity. Some of his best-known avatars, who are tremendously popular and beloved throughout Hindu India, are the gods Krishna and Rama. While the god Shiva may appear as ferocious and terrifying, the god Vishnu generally appears as a princely and benevolent being, sometimes even in a charming and playful childlike form. Vishnu, like Shiva, is capable of conquering tremendous adversaries and is likewise armed with various weapons.

Here Vishnu appears as a kingly god, standing erect on a double lotus pedestal. Lakshmi is the goddess of beauty and good fortune. Sarasvati is the goddess of learning, music, and poetry. Vishnu is accompanied by his vehicle, the bird Garuda, seen here beneath Lakshmi as a bird-like human with a hooked nose and small wings.

How do you recognize Vishnu?

Vishnu can be identified by the attributes he holds in his four hands. His two raised arms hold a mace or club and a discus. His lower hands hold a conch shell and seed; his lower right hand is in the gift-giving gesture (varada mudra). More lotuses are visible beneath his lower hands. As a kingly figure, Vishnu is adorned with an elaborate crown and jewelry, including a necklace, earrings, armbands and a girdle. The long garland flowing in front of his body and crossing at the knees is called a mala. Some of his attributes are weapons of war. The conch shell is blown during battle. The discus has a sharp, jagged edge and is hurled through the air to cut like a knife. Compare this Vishnu with a sandstone sculpture of Vishnu from central India, and another from the Hoysala period in southern India in the Asian Art Museum galleries. What similarities and differences can you identify?

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How do you recognize the goddesses?

Lakshmi is the usual consort (or female aspect or partner) of Vishnu, and is recognized by the fly whisk and lotus. The lotus is associated with life-giving waters and abundance. In another form, she is usually depicted on a lotus with attendants and elephants bathing her. Sarasvati is often seen on her own, or with Brahma, and can be identified by the musical instrument she carries, a vina. The vina symbolizes the beauty of the mind in speech, song and wisdom. She is often seen with a peacock. In this sculpture, both female figures stand on lotus pedestals in a three-bend posture (bending at the waist, hips and knees), which gives the figures a graceful appearance. See if you can find other representations of these goddesses in the galleries.

How would this sculpture have been used?

This sculpture was made during the Pala period (1000–1200 CE) in northeastern India. The gray black stone stele is typical of the region. The combination of the deeply three-dimensional central figure raised from a rigorously incised, detailed background is also typical of the period. The stele shape indicates that the piece was meant to be viewed from the front. No complete structural temples have survived from this time. However, we can assume that this sculpture would have been placed in a niche in a temple devoted to Vishnu.

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[[☃ image 1]]A certain evil demon could not be killed by man or beast, indoors or out, during the day or night. To defeat the demon, Vishnu took the form of a half man-half lion, hid in the pillar of a doorway, and attacked at dusk. Vishnu was victorious, and security and order were restored.

Here the demon is shown twice: bent across Vishnu's knee, being disemboweled; and under Vishnu's foot, being trampled. Along the base of the sculpture, more details of the story are shown. Just before Vishnu's attack, the demon had become enraged at his own son for paying homage to Vishnu. In spite of his father's threats, the boy insisted that Vishnu was present everywhere at all times. The demon angrily retorted, "Even here?" and kicked the pillar of a doorway. Vishnu, as the man-lion, sprang out and overcame him.

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Who is depicted here?

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This is an image of the goddess Durga. She is shown in a triumphant pose as the slayer of the buffalo demon, Mahisha. Durga is a manifestation of the Goddess, who can also appear as the consort Parvati or as a destructive figure Kali. Durga is a powerful manifestation of Parvati and as such appears on her own rather than as a consort of Shiva.

Durga appeared when the gods were unable to subdue a demon who was threatening the entire world. Individually, the gods were unable to defeat the demon. They summoned Durga and gave her all their weapons. The battle went on and on, prolonged by the fact that Mahisha continually changed shapes. Finally, Durga was able to cut off his head as the demon emerged from a buffalo. In this scene, the struggle and violence of the combat between Goddess and demon is only subtly suggested. Durga stands victorious over the head of the buffalo, alluding to the famous story but focusing most of the viewers’ attention on the powerful goddess herself.

In Hindu imagery, many divine figures are often portrayed with their vehicles, animals associated with them such as the eagle Garuda earlier seen portrayed with the god Vishnu. In the visual arts, gods’ vehicles will often be seen to physically support and transport them. In this sculpture, as well as in other South Indian renditions of the subject, the artist has creatively subverted the idea of vehicle to create a deft suggestion of a mythic story, using a basic iconographic device.

How do we recognize Durga?

The goddess Durga is usually depicted with many arms, and sometimes rides on a lion or tiger, her conventional vehicle. Her weapons include a sword, shield, bow and arrow, club and trident. Durga is a powerful figure, and she is usually depicted standing above the buffalo demon, or riding a lion with raised weapons. Another manifestation of the goddess is Kali, who appears as a terrifying and destructive, sometimes having fangs and wearing a garland of severed heads. (The wrathful goddess Kali is similar in nature to Bhairava, the fierce form of Shiva.)

The artisans who created this statue of Durga have combined an image of victory with an image of beauty. The figure is richly adorned with jewelry, a tall crown and has a slender waist and graceful pose. In this sense, she reflects the ability of most goddess figures to act courageously in the world, and at the same time be subjects of devotion and beauty.

How was this sculpture used?

This sculpture might have been placed in a niche of a wall on a southern Indian temple during the Chola dynasty, around the 1000s C.E. The graceful, slender, elongated form of the figure is typical of the period. Her image communicates the idea of triumph over adversity, and the ability to conquer adversaries unvanquishable by the gods.

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[[☃ image 1]]Yogini temples typically included sculptures of seven female goddesses known as matrikas (“mother-goddesses”). These feminized versions of Hindu gods are identifiable by the most common attributes of their male forms.

The goddess here is the female version of [Brahma](http://education.asianart.org/explore-resources/artwork/hindu-deity-brahma-approx-1000%E2%80%931200), who is recognized by his four heads. This feature is seen on the goddess as well (here the fourth head is understood to be at the back). She also holds Brahma’s prayer beads in her upper right hand, and his animal vehicle, the goose, is carved between her feet. Her hair, the matted locks of a renouncer, is piled high, and her left hand forms the wish-granting gesture; her missing right hand would have formed the gesture of reassurance.

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