Buddhism

Understanding Buddhism

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Buddhism is one of the world’s great religions, and has deeply influenced the character and evolution of Asian civilization over the past 2,500 years. It is based on the teachings of a historical figure, Siddhartha Gautama, who lived around the fifth century B.C.E. As it moved across Asia, Buddhism absorbed indigenous beliefs and incorporated a wide range of imagery, both local and foreign, into its art and religious practices. Buddhism continues to evolve as a religion in many parts of the world.

Buddhism is a complex subject, a philosophy that has evolved in many different ways and various regions of Asia, and is still a living faith today. Providing simple definitions for the beliefs and art historical developments of Buddhism is therefore difficult, because so many variations occur. The student of Buddhism should be aware of these variations and points of view. Here we provide a very general overview as a foundation for looking at historical Buddhist arts, focused on the art of India.

Who was the historical Buddha?

The historical Buddha-to-be, Siddhartha Gautama, was born around the 6th century B.C.E. into royalty at Kapilavastu, which lay in the foothills of the Himalayas near the present day Nepalese-Indian border. For most of his youth, the prince led a sheltered existence within the palace, where he enjoyed court life, married a princess, and had a son. Venturing forth from the palace, he finally witnessed disturbing sights he had never before experienced: sickness, old age, death, and a mendicant ascetic. Deeply unsettled by what he had seen, the prince finally renounced his worldy life, and set out on a quest for truth, to confront human suffering and the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Along with other thinkers who lived during this era, the Buddha was also troubled by the caste system, which denied many the possibility of salvation, as well as by the exclusivity and abuses of the brahman priestly caste who controlled religious practices at that time.

What did the historical Buddha preach?

The Buddha sought to find an end to human suffering. He first engaged in extreme austerities as practiced by mendicants and ascetics of his time. After several years of these practices, Siddhartha concluded that this extreme path was not the correct route to perfect understanding (enlightenment). Rather, he proposed that a middle way between extreme austerity and extreme indulgence was the path to wisdom and freedom from suffering. The Buddha declared that he would meditate under a banyan tree until he achieved enlightenment. This phenomenal event occurred at Bodh Gaya in the contemporary state of Bihar, which is one of Buddhism’s great pilgrimage sites.

As a result of his attainment of enlightenment, the prince Siddhartha Gautama was now truly the Buddha, the Enlightened One. He was also commonly referred to as Shakyamuni, the sage of the Shakya clan. The Buddha distilled the principles of enlightenment into a doctrine known as The Four Noble Truths. These are:

• Life is suffering.
• Suffering is caused by desire, and by clinging to the notion of self.
• It is possible to end suffering. To end the suffering caused by desire and ego, one must eliminate the cause.
• Suffering can be ended by following the Noble Eightfold Path, a set of resolutions characterized by aconcern for morality, concentration, moderation, positive action, and wisdom.

Though it evades easy definition, and it varies according to the particular branch of Buddhism, the ultimate goal of most Buddhists is to reach nirvana, a state of bliss in which human desire, ego, and suffering are extinguished.

How did Buddhism begin?

As a collective faith, Buddhism first developed in northeastern India with the historical Buddha’s own followers, who formed a community of monks and laypersons during his lifetime. Those wishing to join the monastic order renounced family and worldly ties, and proclaimed their faith in the “three jewels”: the Buddha, the doctrine (dharma), and the monastic community (sangha).

After the Buddha’s death, concerns arose regarding the interpretation and survival of the order and doctrine. A first council established a set of beliefs on the basis of those surviving monks who could remember what the Buddha had said. Subsequent councils added to these sayings. Debates arose over the apparent contradiction between no-self and rebirth (how could one be reborn if there was no self?), and over the questions of who could be enlightened and whether enlightenment was gradual or spontaneous. By the beginning of first millennium, there were approximately eighteen different schools of Buddhism in India.

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[[☃ image 1]]Over the centuries, two main branches of Buddhism emerged: a transmission that traveled to Southeast Asia, and a transmission that evolved in East Asia. A further offshoot of the northern transmission also developed. All three branches began in India, and developed further as they moved across Asia.

Theravada Buddhism

Theravada is believed to be the oldest form of Buddhism. The term itself comes into use later, but the Theravada tradition upholds the monastic path and adheres to the oldest surviving recorded sayings of the Buddha, collectively called the Pali canon. These original texts were set down in the Pali language by monks in Sri Lanka in the first century C.E. Prior to this codification, teachings had been transmitted orally, and concern arose that original texts must be preserved in light of the growing heterodoxy that was developing in India.

Theravada recognizes the primacy and humanity of the historical Buddha. The Buddha was an exemplary figure. Enlightenment is an arduous task, available only to monks who explicitly pursue the path of Shakyamuni himself. Theravada is the dominant form of Buddhism today in Sri Lanka as well as Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. The subject matter of Buddhist art from these traditions focuses on life events of the Buddha.

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana is a philosophical movement that proclaimed the possibility of universal salvation, offering assistance to practitioners in the form of compassionate beings called bodhisattvas. The goal was to open up the possibility of buddhahood (becoming a Buddha) to all sentient beings. The Buddha ceased to be simply a historical figure, but rather was interpreted as a transcendent figure who all could aspire to become.

New sutras (texts) were added to the Buddhist canon, causing rifts among the various sects. Reformers called themselves the “greater vehicle” (Mahayana), and they labeled the traditionalists the “lesser vehicle” (Theravada). The bodhisattva developed as an enlightened being who postpones his own salvation in order to help others. Initially understood as companions to the Buddha, bodhisattvas are spiritual beings who compassionately vow to achieve buddhahood, but have deferred this aspiration in order to liberate all creatures in the universe from suffering. The most popular bodhisattvas appearing in sculpture and painting include Avalokiteshvara (bodhisattva of mercy and compassion), Maitreya (the future Buddha), and Manjushri (bodhisattva of wisdom).

Mahayana also spread to Southeast Asia, however its greatest impact is felt in the East Asian nations of China, Korea, and Japan. As Mahayana evolved, it continued to expand a vast pantheon of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other divine and semi-divine beings, drawing from and assimilating regional and local traditions.

Tantric Buddhism: a further evolution of Mahayana Buddhism

Tantric or Esoteric Buddhism, sometimes called Vajrayana (the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt), developed about 500–600 C.E. in India. An offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism, the origins of Tantric Buddhism can be traced to ancient Hindu and Vedic practices as well, including esoteric ritual texts designed to achieve physical, mental, and spiritual breakthroughs. Tantric Buddhism is sometimes described as offering a shortcut to enlightenment. Because some practices subverted mainstream Buddhism and Hinduism, engaging in acts otherwise considered taboo, its practitioners were secretive. Initiates worked closely with a spiritual guide or guru.

Vajrayana Buddhism is most closely identified with Tibetan Buddhism, however, it also influenced parts of Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism thrived in India for more than a millennium, reaching an expansive culmination in the Pala period in eastern India. By the 1100s C.E., Buddhism had declined mainly as a result of Muslim incursions.

Before this time, however, Buddhist doctrine had been transmitted to Sri Lanka, which became a further point of reference for the spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia. Travelers and missionaries carried the message of Buddhism by sea and land routes through Central Asia into China by the first century C.E., Buddhism flourished in China between 300 and 900 C.E. and provided a point of reference for Buddhism as it developed in Korea and Japan. Chinese translations of Indian texts contributed to the development of printing.

Buddhism is still strong today in Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Burma, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam. Throughout its history and transmission, Buddhism has been very adaptable to local beliefs and customs, and the combination of these local forms with imported beliefs and symbols is a characteristic of Buddhist art throughout Asia.

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Overview

The earliest surviving representations of the Buddha date from hundreds of years after his death, so they are not portraits in the usual sense. Buddha images vary greatly from place to place and period to period, but they almost always show these conventional features:

• Symbols of radiance. Among these may be a halo around the head or whole body, a flame at the top of the head, or a gold-covered surface.
• Superhuman physical characteristics such as very large size, a lump on the top of the head sometimes said to indicate extraordinary wisdom, fingers all the same length, or special markings on the palms and on the soles of the feet.
• Long earlobes, stretched during the years when the Buddha-to-be, as a prince, wore heavy earrings.
• Monk’s robes. Monks wore a sarong-like lower garment and one or two upper garments, each made of a sheet of cloth wrapped around the upper body, sometimes leaving the right shoulder bare.

Special positions and gestures

The most common position is seated with the legs crossed or interlocked. Common hand positions are:

• right hand over right knee (symbolizing the Buddha’s calling the Earth as a witness during his victory over negative forces)
• right hand held up with palm out (symbolizing giving reassurance)
• hands held at chest with fingers turning invisible wheel (symbolizing setting in motion the “wheel of the doctrine”—that is, preaching)

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[[☃ image 1]]There is significant debate concerning the development of the Buddha image—where it first occurred, why, and when. Broadly speaking, the image of the Buddha emerged during the first few centuries C.E. in two major centers of Indian art during the Kushana period. One center of artistic production was the ancient region of Gandhara, an area that includes northwestern India as well as parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. Gandharan images have a style that is reminiscent of Hellenistic sculpture, and artists in the region were certainly influenced by the presence of Hellenistic colonies, and the large-scale trade and exchange that occurred in this cultural crossroads.

A second area of artistic production is associated with Mathura, a city that still stands to the south of Delhi. Here, artists developed a style that can be characterized as more indigenous, less concerned with naturalistic realism in the human form, and more with the symbolic qualities of the spiritual figure. Mathura artists created other kinds of religious imagery as well. It is probable that Buddhist imagery was influenced by the development of Hindu and Jain figures, and that various communities were developing images of devotional figures simultaneously.

A very significant gap of several centuries exists between the lifetime of the historical Buddha, and the creation of the first surviving images of the Buddha in stone or any other medium. The first surviving Buddhist art in stone was actually created prior to images of the Buddha himself. During the Maurya period, in the reign of emperor Ashoka (272–231 B.C.E.), significant monuments and other artworks in stone were commissioned, apparently for the first time. Although stone sculpture, such as large columns surmounted by images of lions and wheels, expressed Buddhist symbolism and motifs, there are no Buddha images from this period. Many scholars have speculated that an aniconic (without idols) period existed in Buddhist art, where there was a prohibition against depicting the actual Buddha, and various symbols substituted for an explicit anthropomorphic representation. Some scholars have interpreted narrative reliefs at early Buddhist monuments to illustrate early Buddhist processions or festivals, where aniconic symbols, rather than anthropomorphic symbols, represented the Buddha.

Not all scholars accept these theories, however. It seems likely that various kinds of religious imagery, in the Buddhist, Hindu, and other contexts, were created in ephemeral materials before being created in stone. Indeed the great sophistication and high level of sculptural expertise expressed in Maurya stone sculpture implies that the sculptural tradition was already highly developed by this time. The imperial might and Buddhist inclinations of the emperor Ashoka may have been the first great instigators of a transition to large-scale stone sculpture in India. More than three hundred years later, in the Kushana era, a strong imperial ruler bringing various outside artistic and stylistic influences to the realm, seems to have contributed to further artistic developments and a hitherto unseen profusion of sculpture created in stone.

We are not entirely sure how all Buddhist figures were used in ritual and worship. Buddhist images and sculptures originally adorned the complexes of stupas (sacred mounds containing relics) as well as monastic structures. Early Buddhist sites also incorporated indigenous imagery such as loving couples and fertility figures. Caves were hewn from rock in parts of India, creating spaces for worship rituals and community meetings, as well as monastic dwelling quarters. These rock-cut cave complexes became increasingly elaborate in terms of imagery and iconography, which was created in painting as well as carved from stone in situ. Laypersons contributed to small- and large-scale constructions as a means of acquiring merit. Votive images also developed for private use, and as souvenirs for pilgrims to sacred sites.

The figure of the Buddha and attendant bodhisattvas, and other divine and semi-divine beings, became the objects of devotion themselves. As these divine personages expanded in number and complexity, they required larger stupa and temple structures to house them. Over time, the proliferation of great numbers of Buddhist images, in some cases explicitly created through mass production techniques, reflected beliefs in the meritorious repetition of various names and phrases.

In Buddhist art, the image of the historical Buddha is often labeled “Shakyamuni” (sage of the Shakya clan). This distinguishes the image of the historical Buddha, the Buddha who lived on earth during this present period, from past, future, or cosmic buddhas, bodhisattvas, or other divine beings.

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How do we recognize this figure as Shakyamuni Buddha?

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This is the traditional representation of the Shakyamuni Buddha or the historical Buddha. The statue shows the moment of his enlightenment at a place called Bodh Gaya in India, which has become the most holy site visited by Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world. Representations of the Buddha have several physical characteristics that help us identify him. He is seated in the lotus position of meditation—legs crossed at the ankles with the soles upward—his back is completely straight, He wears a simple, thin monk’s robe that covers his left shoulder and arm and exposes the right. At the top of his head is a protuberance that is associated with his transcendent wisdom. His hair is shown as a mass of compact curls. His earlobes are elongated.

Who was Shakyamuni Buddha?

Shakyamuni Buddha is the founder of the Buddhist religion. He lived and taught in India in the sixth century B.C.E., a time of burgeoning religious and philosophical thought from Greece to China. Born as the crown prince of the great Shakya Kingdom, the young Siddhartha Gautama was groomed to be a king in accordance with the wishes of his royal father. However, when he was about 29 years old, he learned of the deep suffering experienced in life by people. He left his palace life, gave up his fine garments and jewelry in order to find the causes of this suffering and the means to overcome it. After about six years of study, self-deprivation, and deep meditation he finally realized his goal. He had become an enlightened one (a Buddha). After this, he is said to have walked to a deer park in Sarnath (Benares) on the outskirts of Varanasi in India. Here he gave his first sermon, an event which is called the turning of the wheel of Buddhist law (Dharmacakra). The wheel as a metaphor for Buddha’s teaching will become a prevalent symbol in Buddhist art.

What does this statute “say”?

Buddhist figures communicate with hand and body gestures. Shakyamuni’s right hand reaches down to touch the earth. This gesture represents the moment when he called the earth to witness his transcendence of the realm of Mara, the supreme God of the world (samsara), who had tried to distract him from his meditation. In response, the earth trembled and shook to acknowledge Shakyamuni’s attainment of Buddhahood. Shakyamuni’s left hand rests in his lap in the gesture of meditation, and holds his alms bowl.

How was this sculpture used?

This style is very similar to what would be found in Tibet as it was taught to Mongolian artists by Tibetan artists, and follows the strict and detailed standards of traditional Tibetan Buddhist iconography. Tibetan sacred art always serves a religious function. This sculpture, like most Tibetan art, may be used in meditation as an aid to visualize one’s own enlightenment, as well as that of all other beings. The sacred sculpture gives the practitioner direct access to the Buddha once it is ritually empowered as an embodiment of the Buddha. It may then receive the obeisance, offerings, confessions and prayers of every variety from the practitioner. These sacred images are invited to take a place of honor on a Buddhist altar, whether at home or in a monastery. There they become a focal point for meditation and ritual.

Who was the artist, Zanabazar?

Zanabazar (1635–1723) was an important religious leader and a famous artist from Mongolia who was a descendent of Chinggis (Gengis) Khan, the great Mongol conqueror. He was Central Asia’s version of the “Renaissance Man.” He was a linguist (he invented a new Mongolian script), politician, theologian, architect, sculptor, and painter. Histories about him abound with miraculous feats, but there is no question of his artistic magic, which was recognized by Mongolians, Tibetans, and the Manchurian court in China. Although it is difficult to know which works he created, this piece is similar in style to other known works by Zanabazar. His students and their descendants followed his way of modeling and producing this style of sacred art, which has become known as the Zanabazar School.

The bottom of this sculpture is inscribed with English? Why?

A steel plate placed on top of the double thunderbolt design under the base is inscribed with the following: “J. Johnson, Quarter Master, 99th Regiment, China Campaign, 1860.” Quarter Master Johnson was part of the Allied troops that occupied Beijing and destroyed the summer palace (Yuanming Yuan). There is no doubt this piece was taken at that time.

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Who is depicted here?

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This stone sculpture depicts a female figure holding on to the branches of a tree. She stands in what is known as a triple bend position. Part of her arms and one leg have broken off. She has a pleasant expression on her face. She wears heavy earrings and anklets. Her full hips, narrow waist and ample breasts are signs of beauty and abundant fertility. Covering her hips is an elaborate, jeweled girdle. She stands on a crouching, dwarflike figure. The branches of the tree, possibly an ashoka tree, spread over her head like a backdrop. On the reverse side of the pillar are shown open lotus flowers.

What is the meaning of this figure?

This is not a portrait of a real person, but a type of figure known as a yakshi a semi-divine spirit referring to a fertile woman whose touch brings certain kinds of trees to blossom. The image conveys a sense of blossoming fertility. The image of a voluptuous woman of childbearing age has a long history in India, and many such images predate Buddhism. Nature itself is considered feminine, and trees are sometimes worshiped with female spirits or local deities appearing to spring forth from their trunks.

Trees are important in Buddhism since it was under a bodhi tree that the Buddha achieved enlightenment. On the railing decorations at Sanchi stupa is a depiction of worshipers paying homage to a tree, in front of which a platform has been erected. It seems likely that this voluptuous figure would have welcomed worshipers, and imparted an auspicious element to the space enclosing the stupa. It may have also eased the transition of those worshipers who were accustomed to the worship of nature spirits and divinities to the relatively newer Buddhist practices and beliefs symbolized at this time by the stupa.

Where was this figure originally placed?

This sculpture is a piece of architecture. The figure backs on to a pillar that originally supported the railing surrounding a stupa. Thus worshipers at ancient stupas would have encountered this figure as they passed through the gates into the stupa enclosure. Enclosing a stupa with a railing helps to demarcate the sacred area of the stupa. One precedent for this may have come from the ancient practice of enclosing sacred trees and other objects, something that can still be encountered in villages and towns throughout India.

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Who is depicted here?

This relief scene from around 100 to 300 depicts the dream of Maya, the mother of the historical Buddha. Queen Maya is asleep in her palace under a full moon. An attendant stands guard outside. In her dream, a white elephant enters her side. This is a miraculous conception that results in the birth of the future Buddha. This scene, along with others from the life of the Buddha, would have been recognizable to viewers at the time it was made, as the scenes from the life of Christ on the walls of a cathedral would have been familiar to medieval European viewers.

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What other scenes from the life of the Buddha are important?

Several scenes from the life of the Buddha are shown together in the galleries at the Asian Art Museum. There are scenes of the Buddha’s birth in the Lumbini gardens, his departure from the palace at night (symbolizing the renouncement of his princely life), his defeat of Mara at the time of his enlightenment, his sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath, and his death surrounded by his disciples, and subsequent attainment of Nirvana. In some works of art, you can see many of these scenes surrounding a central image of the Buddha.

What was the function of these objects?

Fragments that are sculpted on one side like this are called friezes. They would have decorated the wall of a Buddhist monument or monastic building, at the foot of a pedestal or along a stair riser. These images told a story to worshipers, essentially reminding them of key moments in the life of the Buddha. They reinforced concepts in visual form for a largely illiterate population.

What is the style of this piece and where did it come from?

It is likely that this piece came from the region of Gandhara, part of the Kushan empire. The Kushana rulers had migrated from central Asia, and ruled parts of central Asia and northern India. This area was a crossroads of trade and cultures. It was during this time that the first images of the Buddha and related figures appear in large numbers. The figural style, attention to anatomy, and interest in drapery revealing forms of the body recall Hellenistic sculpture. Centuries of trade and the exchange of artistic ideas resulted in a unique aesthetic that fused influences from the Indian, Greek, and West Asian worlds.

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###Who is depicted here?

This is an image of the preaching Buddha. He is seated in a full lotus position on a dais or throne, portions of which can be seen in the corners of the statue. Two smaller figures below the throne are shown in a position of reverence.

How do we recognize the Buddha?

As a result of his enlightenment, the historical prince Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha (the enlightened one), and thereafter acquired various marks (lakshana) that identify him as the Buddha. These markings became formalized over several centuries as sculptors refined the image of the Buddha and adapted that image to local cultures.

One of these marks is the wisdom bump or protuberance on the head. The Buddha’s hair is gathered in a top knot, in keeping with the fashion of the times and similar to the way ascetics (spiritual people who renounce the comforts of material life) gather their hair in India even today. The depiction of the top knot in sculpture became more formalized over time as a bump, and the hair developed into tiny stylized curls. Another mark is the urna, a tuft of hair between the eyebrows. The Buddha’s earlobes are extended in reference to the heavy jewelry he wore previously as a prince. He wears a simple monk’s robe, in keeping with his spiritual purpose, and sits in a lotus position. If his hands were lying flat in his lap, he would be meditating, but in this sculpture his hands are raised in a teaching position. The Buddha is also identified as an exceptional person by the addition of a halo behind his head, which may have derived from a sun disk, and may also refer to the wheel of the Buddhist law, a symbol for the Buddha’s teachings.

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Who is depicted here?

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This statue depicts the bodhisattva Maitreya. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone their own salvation in order to help all sentient beings. The bodhisattva is an ideal type, not a depiction of an historical person like the Buddha. Bodhisattvas have some of the characteristics of Christian saints. They are compassionate figures who help worshipers. Unlike saints, however, they are not associated with historical persons, hagiographies, or martyrdom.

There are many bodhisattvas. Maitreya is the Buddha of the future, who will be born to teach enlightenment in the next age. According to Mahayana teachings, a Buddha is first born as a bodhisattva, and then after many lifetimes, progresses on to Buddhahood. The historical Buddha was himself referred to as a bodhisattva before becoming the Buddha. Another common bodhisattva to appear in Buddhist art is Avalokiteshvara, who is known by different names in different parts of the Buddhist world (for example, Guanyin in China and Kannon in Japan).

How do we know where this figure came from?

Bodhisattvas tend, as a whole, to be more richly attired than figures of buddhas. Where many Buddha figures (except crowned buddhas) have only a simple monk’s robe draped over one shoulder, bodhisattvas are adorned with flowing robes, bracelets, necklaces and threads containing amulet boxes, elaborate hairdos, and sometimes a moustache. Bodhisattvas are often represented as princely figures, alluding to the historical Buddha’s life as a prince before he renounced his kingdom, and distinguishing them from the Buddha who is attired as a mendicant monk. The bodhisattva Maitreya is identified here by the small flask he holds in his left hand, filled with a liquid of immortality.

The sculpture comes from the region of Gandhara. The schist stone allows for detailed carving, especially in the deeply carved lines of the drapery, the hairdo, and jewelry. Gandharan sculpture is reminiscent of Hellenistic sculptures in the naturalistic attention to anatomical details. There are also direct references to Greco-Roman imagery, for example, in the centaurs holding the central amulet on the main necklace. A centaur is a classical mythological animal that is half-human, half horse. The bodhisattva figure is carved realistically, with enough attention to detail to make one suspect that local princes in the area probably were adorned this way. By combining local styles and characteristics with messages having universal appeal, Buddhist art effectively helped spread the faith into central Asia and beyond.

When did bodhisattvas emerge in Buddhist art?

We do not know for sure when the first Buddhist image was created, but historical evidence provides examples of Buddha images within several centuries of his lifetime (approximately 560–480 B.C.E). The earliest Buddhist imagery was probably created in ephemeral materials. By the first century C.E., we find Buddhist images and stone in the North Indian center of Mathura, and in the northwestern region of Gandhara.

This sculpture dates from about 100–300 C.E. Sculpted images of the Buddha and of bodhisattva figures are prolific in this period. The concept of the bodhisattva is, in philosophical terms, associated with the rise of Mahayana, a branch of Buddhism that offered the possibility of Buddhahood to everyone. Other branches of Buddhism presented a more arduous path to Buddhahood through the monastic order, with less hope of individual salvation. In the Mahayana path, having compassionate figures to work on behalf of the worshipers’ spiritual goals served to make the faith more accessible to larger numbers of people.

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###Who is depicted here?

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This is an image of a crowned and bejeweled Buddha, standing on a lotus pedestal, surrounded by four other figures representing four famous scenes from the life of the historical Buddha. It dates from approximately 1050–1100 C.E. The central figure stands in a fairly rigid fashion, in contrast to the mid-sized figures to his lower right and left, who appear in a more relaxed posture.

The central figure’s right hand is in a gesture (mudra) of “fear not,” his left hand grasps the stem of a lotus bud. He wears a long robe that delineates the forms of the body. The figures are idealized in their conception. For example, the torso of the central Buddha figure is said (in ancient texts) to resemble the head of a bull. The legs and arms of the larger figures are sculpted in a buoyant, geometrically abstracted style. The dark grey chlorite stone used here allows for both high polished, smooth areas such as the limbs of the larger buddha figures, and the intricate details surrounding all the figures, and along the borders of the piece.

The two tiny figures at the viewer’s bottom left may be depictions of donors who financed the creation of the sculpture, or they may simply be worshipers. Nearby are two cone-like bowls filled with offerings. The four subsidiary figures are:

* (viewer’s upper left) the Buddha calling on the earth goddess to witness his claim to Buddhahood; the earth goddess can be seen below the figure (upper right) the Buddha accepting an offering from a monkey (the monkey seen below the figure) * (upper right) the Buddha accepting an offering from a monkey (the monkey seen below the figure) * (lower right) the Buddha taming a wild elephant; from the Buddha’s outstretched hand spring lions, representing his teachings after preaching to his mother in Indra’s heaven (Indra, a Vedic/Hindu god that also appears in Buddhist texts) * (lower left) the Buddha’s descent from heaven after preaching to his mother in Indra’s heaven (Indra, a Vedic/Hindu god that also appears in Buddhist texts)

Here the central figure wears a five-point crown, and above him is a parasol topped by stupas, a symbol of royalty and respect. As Buddhism evolved, it developed greater complexity, and this is reflected in artistic imagery. The central buddha here is an abstract figure representing the cosmic buddha principle, rather than the historical figure who lived in a certain time and place. This cosmic buddha encompasses other buddhas, including the historical one. This is indicated artistically by the fact that the central figure dominates all the others in size.The five points on the crown may refer to five insights, personified as five buddhas (jinas) each representing one of the cardinal directions.

A majestic form of the Buddha, embodying universal principles, was one that even earthly monarchs could follow. The Pala kings who ruled eastern India at the time this sculpture was made were the last great patrons of Buddhist art in India. They probably imagined that they could aspire to the universal Buddha principle that encompassed their own and other earthly realms.

Susan and John Huntington wrote in their catalogue, _Leaves from the Bodhi Tree: The Art of Pala India (8th–12th centuries) and Its International Legacy_ (Dayton: Dayton Art Institute, 1989):

The crown and jewelry emphasize the aspect of the Buddha as a universal sovereign, drawing a visual analogy between the attainment of Buddhahood and coronation as a king. Unlike the monk’s robes, which signal his renunciation, the royal adornments evoke the king’s majesty, kingly qualities, and omniscience.

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Compassionate and merciful

This is an image of the compassionate and merciful bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who are destined to become buddhas but postpone that final state in order to help humanity. The name Avalokiteshvara means “Lord who looks down with compassion.” Avalokiteshvara is shown here sitting on a lion throne and arrayed in jewels like a prince. Above his head is a parasol, an ancient symbol of royal status. Beside his head are lotus-borne stupas, topped with sun and crescent moons. Avalokiteshvara’s right hand is in the gesture of gift granting, and in his left hand he holds a long-stemmed lotus. In his elaborate hairdress is an image of the Buddha Amitabha. (Amitabha presides over the western Pure Land, a kind of Buddhist paradise. The worship of Amitabha became very popular in East Asian Buddhism).

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Who are the smaller figures?

At Avalokiteshvara’s left knee crouches his protective attendant who holds a thunderbolt, or vajra. This figure can also appear in Hindu art as a minor incarnation of Vishnu. He typically has a fat body, disheveled hair and bulging eyes. In this context, an angry appearance can be a form of protection, rather than evil. The thunderbolt is often seen in tantric Buddhist art (sometimes called “Vajrayana” Buddhism). It alludes to the indivisible, impenetrable nature of enlightenment.

At the base of the sculpture a needle-nosed starving ghost kneels drinking nectar dripping from Avalokiteshvara’s gift-granting hand. A hungry ghost is one who suffers insatiable appetites, resulting from accumulated greed in previous lives. His presence confirms the compassionate nature of the bodhisattva.

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Near the middle of the base, a monk holds the stem of the lotus on which the deity rests his foot. Behind this monk, another monk and a layperson (perhaps a woman) sit in worshipful postures. They could be the donors of the sculpture.

The inscription

The base of this sculpture is inscribed with the “Buddhist creed,” a saying commonly inscribed on Buddhist artworks. The creed can be translated as:

The Buddha has explained the cause of all things that arise from a cause.
He, the great monk, has also explained their cessation.

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###Who is depicted in this sculpture? What is he doing?

Buddhism is a religion based on the teachings of a historical figure known as the Buddha Shakyamuni, who lived about 2,500 years ago. In some schools of Buddhism the Buddha Shakyamuni is thought of as one buddha among many, each inhabiting a different era or part of the universe. This sculpture shows Amitabha, identified as the Buddha of the Western Paradise. Amitabha is shown seated in deep concentration with half-closed eyes and hands held together at the lap in the gesture of meditation. He wears a simple monk’s robe, draped over the shoulders, leaving the flesh of his chest and the lower part of one arm exposed. His hair arrangement, typical for Amitabha, is composed of hundreds of curls, and raised at the top in a cranial bulge that is one of the marks of the Buddha’s supernatural powers.

During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, images of Amitabha were created in large numbers as a result of the popularity of a Buddhist sect known as Pure Land. The teachings of this sect emphasized the horrors of Buddhist hells and celebrated the glories of Amitabha’s Western Paradise, also known as the Pure Land. Pure Land adherents believed that if they uttered Amitabha’s name sincerely, they would achieve salvation, and be escorted to his glorious paradise after death by a retinue of gods.

How was this object made?

The Amitabha is carved of wood and constructed using the “joined-wood” technique. In contrast to earlier wood sculpture carved from a single block, eleventh century sculptors developed this new technique to produce large, lightweight images. Artisans made images like this one by shaping and hollowing separate, smaller blocks of wood, then assembling the parts into one large sculpture.

There were several advantages to this technique: the finished sculpture was less likely to split because the wood core had been removed; the use of small pieces of wood required only a third of the wood needed for single-block construction; and the work could be divided into specialized steps each done by different groups of workers, a process somewhat akin to a factory assembly line. After completion, the figure was coated with lacquer and then gilded.

Why was this figure important to the samurai?

During the Kamakura period (1185–1333), proselytizing, mendicant monks spread the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism throughout Japan. Along with many commoners, warriors turned to faith in Amitabha as an expedient means of ensuring salvation. Although large-scale images like this one would not have been available on the battlefield, prayer strips inscribed with the name of Amitabha were distributed as portable reminders of his power, allaying the fears of many soldiers in combat. Pure Land monks are known to have attended warriors on the battlefield, encouraging prayer and witnessing the proper conduct of their death.

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